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Zhongzhen Zhao Li Liang
Today Goji berry, also known as Wolfberry, is very popular as a source of nutrition; in fact, it is sometimes called a superfood. Its name in Chinese is Gou Qi Zi. “Zi” usually means seed, but Gou Qi Zi is actually the fruit. Goji berry is a plant of the Solanaceae family, which is the family of tomato, and in fact Goji berries are like very small tomatoes. Botanically, the word “berry” refers to a particular kind of fruit with many seeds rather than a single pit (like apricot or peach). Technically, both Goji berries and tomatoes are in fact berries. In this case the English name, Goji berries, is botanically accurate. (And tomatoes should actually be called “tomato berries”.)
Knowing several characteristics of Goji berry allows you to pick the best from a dizzying array of products. There are two major producing areas of Goji berry, which are Ningxia and Xinjiang, China. The shape of Ningxia Goji is a long oval, while the ones from Xinjiang are round. Fresh Goji are bright red; dried goji can be bright red or dark red. However, some Goji are bright red because they have been smoked with sulfur during drying. Chemically, the common sources of sweetness in fresh fruits are glucose and fructose, which are monosaccharides. Instead, the Goji berry contains polysaccharides, which are not so sweet, nor as hygroscopic as monosaccharides. Therefore, the taste of Goji berry has a slight bitter after-taste, and the texture after drying is somewhat leathery. To sum up, the best Goji berry will have three characteristics, 1. a long oval shape, 2. dark red color, and 3. a flavor that is not too sweet.
Goji Berry (Ningxia Gou Qi)
Goji berry is recorded in the Shennong Ben Cao Jing (Classic of Materia Medica or Shen-nong’s Herbal Classics), where it is listed as an
“
upper rank
”
herb. In Chinese medicine, this term refers to tonic medicines that nourish the body, prolong life, and can be used safely for a long time. Goji berry is also recorded in Volume 36 of the Compendium of Materia Medica. Li Shizhen recorded that Goji berry from Hexi and Ganzhou were round like cherries, sweet, and tasted like grapes, and that they could be eaten as fruits. After literature research and field investigation, I think that the Goji from Hexi and Ganzhou mentioned in the Compendium were actually Ningxia Gou Qi.
Goji berry as they grow (Ningxia Gou Qi) Goji berry plant in flower. Each flower, when pollinated, will become berry (Ningxia Gou Qi)
According to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition), the botanical source of Goji berry is Lycium barbarum L. The plant is formally called Ningxia Gou Qi in Chinese. Thus the Chinese name includes the name of the berry as well as the production area of authentic medicinal materials.
Historically, the main producing areas of Goji berry were in Zhongning County and the adjacent Zhongwei County in Ningxia. Some people describe Ningxia as a kind of bonsai-landscape for tourists in China because this region has mountains, canyons, deserts, grasslands, the Yellow River, and “the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River”. As a person who works in the traditional Chinese medicine field, for me, the most attractive thing in Ningxia is the Goji berry. There, fresh Goji berries are as sparkly, plump and juicy as cherries, with a slightly sweet and slightly bitter taste.
Plantation base of Goji berry in Ningxia “Red” can be found everywhere in Ningxia
Nowadays, almost all Goji berry plants are small shrubs. Li Shizhen recorded the Goji plant as a large tree, but this form is rare today. When I visited the cultivation base in Ningxia, I saw a small tree known as the “King of Goji”. It is about 3 meters tall, and over 100 years old. It still blooms and produces fruit. Local medicinal farmers said that the Goji plants they are growing are all descendants of that one “grandfather” tree.
King of Goji
“Oriental Billberry”
The Compendium of Materia Medica records the efficacy of Goji berry as being that it strengthens muscles and bones, helps the body resist cold and heat, and replenishes vital essence and qi. It also improves appearance, improves eyesight and calms the nerves, helping people to live longer. However, the Compendium of Materia Medica also includes a warning: “If you travel thousands of miles from home, don’t eat Goji berry.” Why? Because Goji berry can nourish the kidney, according to the ancients, and the kidney controls sexual desire. So, people should not eat too much of it when they are far away from home and their spouses.
The ability of Goji berry to improve eyesight has been widely recognized. Liuwei Dihuang Pills is a commonly used formula in Chinese medicine. When two additional herbs—Goji berry and chrysanthemum—are added, the formula becomes Qiju Dihuang Pills, which has the effect of nourishing liver and kidney, clearing liver and improving eyesight.
Billberry is another small fruit that is reputed to improve eyesight. Billberry, blueberry and lingonberry are all species in the Ericaceae family. Like Goji berry (and tomato) they are true berries. It is said that, during World War II, British airplane pilots took billberry before night missions in order to improve their night vision. Berries are more than sweet fruits!
Goji berry injustice
Just as the Goji berry was entering the international market as a food and medicine, the safety of Goji berry in Ningxia was suddenly questioned by the international academic community. As a result, the export of Goji berries encountered obstacles and businesses suffered heavy losses.
The issue stemmed from an academic paper. In 1989, an Indian scholar, Professor Harsh, published an article in Current Science, an influential international journal. The article stated that Lycium barbarum L., a Chinese Goji berry from Ningxia, also grows in arid regions of India, and that its fruit contains 0.59% atropine. Atropine is a powerful alkaloid, used to treat nerve poisoning. Overdose of atropine can cause dizziness, mydriasis, rapid heart rate, irritability, and other serious adverse reactions. 0.59% is quite a high level for atropine. If this data were true, Goji berry would be dangerous to eat as a daily health food; indeed, if it were true, Goji would be valuable as a source for atropine. This paper triggered the “Indian Goji berry case”, which suddenly put China’s Ningxia Goji berry in a very embarrassing situation.
Goji berry has been used in China for more than 2,000 years. Neither in ancient books nor in modern clinical applications, has there ever been a record of the above-mentioned toxic side effects from ingesting Goji berry. What could explain the results of this Indian scientist?
At that time, we believed there were two possible explanations. One is that Goji berry actually contains atropine, but we never knew because China’s Ningxia Goji berry had not been tested. The second possibility was that the Indian scientist had made a mistake in identifying the material used for the study.
It is often harder to overturn an old conclusion than to draw a new conclusion. Sufficient evidence must be given and a lot of work must be done to convince people. After I came to Hong Kong, my first doctoral student’s dissertation title was selected as “The Pharmacological Research of Lycium barbarum”. We pursued a two-pronged approach, conducting domestic field investigations in China and getting in touch with relevant Indian scholars at the same time. Dr. Yong Peng and I went to Xinjiang and Ningxia to conduct field investigation on the varieties of Goji berry many times during the entire four years. Dr. Peng himself traveled to almost all of the production areas of Lycium barbarum in China. He collected a large number of original plant specimens and medicinal material samples.
Our test results showed that the content of atropine in Ningxia Goji berry is quite low and insignificant. The normal dose of Goji berry could not cause adverse effects on the human body.
Since we could not find a problem with Chinese Goji berry, we concluded that the problem must lie in India.
Twenty or thirty years ago, email and social media were not widespread; we had to correspond by letter. Over six months, we wrote to Professor Harsh many times, but there was no response. We sent a registered letter, but the post office couldn’t find him, and the letter couldn’t be delivered. After many inquiries, we learned that Professor Harsh passed away shortly after publishing his article. We could not find anyone who could help explain how he produced the data he published, or reached his conclusions.
Just as we were about to give up on solving this problem, another Indian scholar appeared. In 2003, while attending academic conferences and field investigations in South Africa, Dr. Yong Peng and I met Dr. Sauris Panda, a plant taxonomist from India. Our meeting at the Cape of Good Hope really did usher in a dawn of hope! The appearance of this Dr. Panda was extraordinarily timely. I immediately sent an invitation to Dr. Panda to come to Hong Kong for collaborative research. He made great contributions, helping us to crack the “ndian Goji berry case”. With the assistance of Dr. Panda, we collected all the plants of the Lycium genus distributed in India–none of them was Lycium barbarum.
The conclusion is that the “Goji” described in the paper by Professor Harsh from India was not Chinese Ningxia Goji at all.
For further confirmation, in 2004, Prof. Peigen Xiao, Dr. Yong Peng and I went to the Royal Botanic Garden (Kew Gardens) in London, to visit the Kew Herbarium, which houses more than 7.5 million pressed and dried plant specimens collected over centuries, from all over the world. In botanical taxonomy confusion can only be clarified after seeing or comparing original “type” specimens.
We went to the Royal Botanic Garden (Kew Gardens) in London to find the specimens of Indian
Goji (Left to right, Dr Yong Peng)
In Kew Gardens, we not only found the specimens of the plants described by Professor Harsh, but we also found living plants. Finally, with first-hand evidence, we clarified that the “Ningxia Goji berry” mentioned in the paper by Professor Harsh from India was actually not the Chinese Ningxia Goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.), but it was Lycium europaeum L. instead.
The case was closed, mystery solved. Based on his excellent pharmacognosy research on Goji berry, Yong Peng not only made Goji berry once again welcome in the global market, but also successfully obtained his doctorate degree.
Meanwhile, in recent years, a new member of the Lycium genus has entered the market. This is Black Wolfberry, which is now also being cultivated in Ningxia. Black wolfberry is distributed in the plateau area of Asia. It is exposed to strong ultraviolet rays all the year round, which gives it higher anthocyanin content and, thus, darker, almost black, color. It is the anthocyanins that support eye health.
Goji berry can be used as a medicinal herb or as a food. Goji berry is a valuable traditional Chinese medicine. It is famous, but not expensive. The Compendium of Materia Medica mentioned that Goji berry can be eaten dry or fresh. With the advancement of modern transportation and preservation technology, people all over the world-not just in Ningxia—can now taste fresh Goji berry.
Author information:
Dr, Zhao Zhongzhen， Former deputy dean and professor of the School of Chinese Medicine of Hong Kong Baptist University, distinguished professor of Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, and founding director of the Compendium of Materia Medica Research Institute.
Dr. Li Liang Hong Kong Baptist University, 7 Baptist University Road, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong.
枸杞
趙中振 樑鸝
枸杞子作爲養生佳品，在海内外市場上甚爲流行。枸杞子名“子”不是子，而是果實。
枸杞是茄科的植物，新鮮枸杞子的形狀像小西紅柿一樣。相似的果實形狀、花和種子，這些穩定的性狀特徵可判定茄科植物的親緣關係。
優質的枸杞子有幾個要點，瞭解之後可在眼花繚亂的衆多商品中挑選出較好的。
寧夏枸杞的形狀偏長，新疆枸杞偏圓。枸杞子原本的顔色並非鮮紅，顔色偏暗紅較好，而有些枸杞過於鮮紅艷麗，這很可能是在産地用硫磺熏過的色澤。
枸杞子内所含的是多糖，而常見的新鮮水果的甜味來源主要是葡萄糖、果糖，多糖不甜，也不像單糖那樣吸濕性强，所以枸杞子的味道不會太甜，干品的質地也偏硬。
綜上，可挑選形狀偏長、色澤暗紅、味道不太甜的枸杞子。
Goji Berry (Ningxia Gou Qi)
枸杞被《神農本草經》列爲上品，也記録在《本草綱目》木部第36卷。李時珍記載，河西及甘州者，其子圓如櫻桃，干亦紅潤、甘美，味如葡萄，可作果品食用。
經過文獻考證與實地調查，我認爲《本草綱目》所指産於河西及甘州者，應爲寧夏枸杞。
Goji berry as they grow (Ningxia Gou Qi) Goji berry plant in flower. Each flower, when pollinated, will become berry (Ningxia Gou Qi)
現在的《中國藥典》規定，枸杞子的來源爲寧夏枸杞Lycium barbarum L.，恰好植物名和道地藥材的産地是相同的。
歷史上枸杞子的主要産區集中在寧夏中寧縣與相鄰的中衛縣。有人把寧夏比喻爲中國旅遊的微縮盆景，那裏有高山、有峽谷、有沙漠、有草原、有濤濤黄河，還有“江南秀色”。身爲中藥人，最吸引我的莫過於枸杞。新鮮枸杞果實就像櫻桃一樣晶瑩，味道微甜中帶一點苦。
Plantation base of Goji berry in Ningxia “Red” can be found everywhere in Ningxia
現在的枸杞多爲小灌木。李時珍所記載的枸杞“大樹”已較爲罕見。我到寧夏枸杞栽培基地考察時，見到了一棵被譽爲“枸杞王”的小喬木，約3米多高，樹齡過百歲，仍可開花結果。當地藥農稱，他們現在種植的枸杞都是那株枸杞“爺爺”的子孫。
King of Goji
“東方藍莓”
《本草綱目》記載枸杞的功效，可久服，堅筋骨，輕身不老，耐寒暑，而且補精氣，易顔色，明目安神，令人長壽。《本草綱目》引用了一句俗諺：“去家千裏，勿食蘿摩、枸杞。”古人説得比較含蓄，由於枸杞子可補腎，而勸誡一人在外，少吃枸杞爲好。
枸杞子明目功效得到了海内外的普遍認可。常用方六味地黄丸，組方中加上枸杞與菊花兩味藥，就成了杞菊地黄丸，具有補益肝腎，清肝明目的功效。
越橘是另一種以改善視力而聞名的小水果。 越橘、藍莓和山桑子都是杜鵑花科的植物。像枸杞（和番茄）一樣，它們都是漿果。據説，二戰期間，英國飛行員爲了提高夜視視力，在夜間執行任務前服用了越橘。漿果不僅僅是甜美的水果！
枸杞冤案
就在枸杞大踏步走向國際市場的同時，突然間寧夏枸杞的安全性受到了來自國際學術界極大地質疑，中藥枸杞的出口也遇到了障礙，遭受了重創。
事情起源於一篇學術論文。1989年，一位印度學者Harsh哈什教授在一個有影響力的國際雜誌Current Science上發表了一篇文章。文中提到在印度乾旱地區也生長着中國的寧夏枸杞Lycium barbarum L.，它的果實中含有0.59%的阿托品(Atropine)。阿托品是一種生物碱，常用在眼科檢查時需要散瞳孔的眼藥水裏。服用阿托品過量可能導致眩暈、瞳孔放大、心率加快、煩躁等不良反應。0.59%對於阿托品是相當高的含量，若這數據是真的，枸杞甚至可以作爲提取阿托品的原料了。這篇論文引發了“印度枸杞子案”，一下子使得中國的寧夏枸杞陷入了十分尷尬的局面。
枸杞在中國已有2000多年的應用歷史，無論是古籍文獻，還是現代臨床應用，從來未見使用枸杞後造成上述毒副作用的記載。
那麽印度的事件只有兩種可能：一種是以往中國的寧夏枸杞没檢測出來;另一種是印度學者搞錯了基原品種。
若想推翻一個結論，往往比得出一個結論更難，必須要拿出充分的證據，做大量的工作，以理服人。我來港以後指導的第一位博士研究生的論文題目就選定爲《枸杞屬的生藥學研究》。我們雙管齊下，國内實地考察與聯絡印度的工作同時開展，與相關印度學者取得聯繫，前後整整四年，我和彭勇博士先後多次到新疆、寧夏的野外考察枸杞品種，彭勇博士更是幾乎跑遍了全國枸杞的分佈點，采集了大量的原植物標本和對口藥材樣品。
我們的檢測結果表明，寧夏枸杞子中的生物碱含量是痕量的，微乎其微，正常劑量不會對人體造成不良作用。
中國的枸杞没有問題，那問題有可能就出在印度。
二、三十年前，電郵和社交媒體還不普及，我們多次給Harsh教授寫信，經過半年的努力，去信如石沉大海，掛號信查無此人，寄不到本人手中。後經多方打聽才得知，Harsh教授在發表了那篇不負責的文章以後不久，便撒手而去了，他的離世讓這個“印度枸杞子案”變得死無對证，與發表者本人聯繫：此路不通。
就在我們一籌莫展之際，另外一位印度學者出現在我們面前。2003年，我和彭勇在南非參加學術會議和野外考察期間，結識了一位來自印度的植物分類學家Sauris Panda博士。終於，在好望角我們迎來了希望的曙光，真是柳暗花明。Panda在英文中是熊猫的意思，這位“熊猫”博士的出現真是太及時了。我當即發出邀請，請Panda博士來中國香港進行合作研究，他爲我們進一步破解“印度枸杞案”立下了汗馬功勞。在Panda博士的協助下，我們收集到了所有印度分佈的枸杞屬植物，其中並没有寧夏枸杞。
結論出來了，印度Harsh教授那篇論文中所描述的“枸杞”根本不是寧夏枸杞。
爲進一步印证，2004年，我同肖培根院士、彭勇，一行三人共赴倫敦，去往英國皇家植物園——邱園的植物標本館進行考察。邱園中珍藏了750萬份植物標本，很多世界植物分類鑒别上的難題，需到在那裏拿到權威的憑據。植物界的仲裁案都需要得到模式標本驗证才能下定論。
We went to the Royal Botanic Garden (Kew Gardens) in London to find the specimens of Indian
Goji (Left to right, Dr Yong Peng, Prof. Peigen Xiao, me (Zhongzhen Zhao)
在邱園，我們不但找到了Harsh教授所描述的那種植物的模式標本，還找到了栽培的鮮植物。最終有了確鑿的第一手證據，我們澄清了印度Harsh教授該篇論文中所説的“寧夏枸杞”實際是歐枸杞，並不是中國的寧夏枸杞，基原未鑒定明確的論文不足爲证。
問題澄清了，枸杞子再次踏上了國際化之路。基於枸杞生藥學出色的研究，在那之後彭勇也順利通過答辯，獲得了博士學位。
另外，近年來流行起一種黑枸杞。黑枸杞是枸杞同屬不同種的植物。在寧夏有栽培的黑枸杞。因爲黑枸杞分佈在高原地區，常年受强烈紫外綫照射，使得植物中花青素含量較高，顔色呈黑色。
枸杞子被列入了我國第一批藥食兩用的名單。枸杞子屬於名貴中藥，不過有名的不一定貴。《本草綱目》曾提到枸杞子可干食、可鮮用。隨着現代運輸、保鮮技術的進步，人們也能直接品嚐到新鮮的枸杞了。
作者簡介：
趙中振，教授，香港浸信會大學中醫藥學院原副院長， 北京中醫藥大學特聘教授，本草綱目研究所創始所長。
樑鸝，博士，香港浸會大學，香港九龍塘浸會大學道7號 [email protected]
